Aflatoxins in Feed: Types, Metabolism, Health Consequences in Swine and Mitigation Strategies.

Feeding farm animals with aflatoxin-contaminated feed can cause various severe toxic effects, leading to increased susceptibility to infectious diseases and increased mortality, weight loss, poor performance and reduced reproductive capability. Following ingestion of contaminated foodstuffs, aflatoxins are metabolized and biotransformed differently in animals. Swine metabolism is not effective in detoxifying and excreting aflatoxins, meaning the risk of aflatoxicosis is increased. Thus, it is of great importance to elucidate the metabolism and all metabolic pathways associated with this mycotoxin. The damage induced by AFB1 in cells and tissues consists of inhibition of cell proliferation, carcinogenicity, immunosuppression, mutagenicity, oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation and DNA damage, leading to pathological lesions in the liver, spleen, lymph node, kidney, uterus, heart, and lungs of swine. At present, it is a challenging task and of serious concern to completely remove aflatoxins and their metabolites from feedstuff; thus, the aim of this study was a literature review on the deleterious effects of aflatoxins on swine metabolism, as well as alternatives that contribute to the detoxification or amelioration of aflatoxin-induced effects in farm animal feed.

The use of histológical parameters to assess intestinal and liver health on broilers challenged isolatedly and simultaneously with cyclopiazonic acid and aflatoxin / B1 El uso de parámetros histológicos para evaluar la salud intestinal y hepática en pollos de engorde desafiados de forma aislada y simultánea con ácido ciclopiazónico y aflatoxina B1

Abstract Mycotoxins contaminate agricultural commodities, which contaminates animals. These toxins can damage vital organs, such as the liver, as well as the epithelial tissue. Among these mycotoxins are aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), which can occur simultaneously in food. In broilers, mycotoxicosis has an economic impact due to several factors, such as low feed conversion rate, incidence of other diseases, and interference with reproductive capacity, all of which may lead to a public health problem. The aim of the present study was to histologically assess, through the I See Inside (ISI) method, harmful effects on broiler liver, duodenum, jejunum, and ileum in the presence of AFB1 and CPA isolatedly and simultaneously. Groups challenged with mycotoxins showed significant damage to both gut and liver fragments. All challenged-groups in all fragments impaired the parameters analyzed for intestinal epithelium. In the liver, AFB1 was predominantly harmful when the parameters were analyzed separately, but when analyzing the total ISI score, CPA was also found to be harmful to this organ. The other point analyzed was the great variation between the weights of the birds contaminated by mycotoxin while the negative control group presents a lesser variation.

Resumen Las micotoxinas contaminan los productos agrícolas, que a su vez contaminan a los animales. Estas toxinas pueden dañar órganos vitales, como el hígado y el tejido epitelial. Entre estas micotoxinas se encuentran la aflatoxina B1 (AFB1) y el ácido ciclopiazónico (CPA), que pueden hallarse simultáneamente en los alimentos. En los pollos de engorde, la micotoxicosis tiene un impacto económico debido a varios factores, como la baja tasa de conversión alimenticia, la incidencia de otras enfermedades y la interferencia de la capacidad reproductiva, que pueden llevar a un problema de salud pública. El objetivo de la presente investigación es la de evaluar histológicamente, a través del método "I See Inside" (ISI), los efectos nocivos sobre el hígado, duodeno, yeyuno e íleon de pollos de engorde en presencia de AFB1 y CPA de forma aislada y simultánea. Los grupos desafiados con micotoxinas presentaron un daño significativo tanto en el intestino como en los fragmentos del hígado. Todos los grupos tratados tuvieron alteraciones en los parámetros analizados para el epitelio intestinal. En el hígado, AFB1 fue predominantemente dañino cuando los parámetros se analizaron por separado, pero al examinar la puntuación ISI total, también se encontró que el CPA era perjudicial para este órgano. Otra cuestión que fue investigada fue la gran variación entre los pesos de las aves contaminadas por micotoxinas mientras el grupo de control negativo presentó una variación menor.

Investigation of a Novel Multicomponent Mycotoxin Detoxifying Agent in Amelioration of Mycotoxicosis Induced by Aflatoxin-B1 and Ochratoxin A in Broiler Chicks.

The present study was designed to determine the efficacy of a novel multicomponent mycotoxin detoxifying agent (MMDA) containing modified zeolite (Clinoptilolite), Bacillus subtilis, B. licheniformis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell walls and silymarin against the deleterious effects of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and Ochratoxin A (OTA) in broiler chicks. A total of 160 one-day-old Ross 308® broiler chicks were randomly allocated in four treatment groups, with four replicates, according to the following experimental design for 42 days. Group A received a basal diet; Group B received a basal diet contaminated with AFB1 and OTA at 0.1 mg/kg and 1 mg/kg, respectively; Group C received a basal diet contaminated with AFB1 and OTA and MMDA at 1 g/kg feed, and Group D received a basal diet contaminated with AFB1 and OTA and MMDA at 3 g/kg feed. Results showed that ingested mycotoxins led to significant (p ≤ 0.05) reduction in body weight and feed conversion from 25 days of age, induced histopathological changes, increased the pH of the intestinal content, and altered the biochemical profile of birds with significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased aspartate aminotransferase (AST) values (p ≤ 0.05). On the other hand, the supplementation of MMDA significantly (p ≤ 0.05) improved the feed conversion ratio (FCR) during the second part of the study, diminished biochemical alterations, reduced pH in jejunal and ileal content, and E. coli counts in the caeca of birds (p ≤ 0.05). It may be concluded that the dietary supplementation of the MMDA partially ameliorated the adverse effects of AFB1 and OTA in broilers and could be an efficient tool in a mycotoxin control program.

Spongy Myelinopathy in Newborn Beef Calves Associated with Consumption of Corn Infected with Stenocarpella maydis.

Stillbirth and perinatal mortality with neurological signs and lesions were diagnosed in two calves following ingestion by their dams of corn infected with Stenocarpella maydis during the third trimester of gestation. Grossly, the brain and spinal cord were unremarkable. Microscopically, diffuse severe status spongiosis of the white matter was detected in the cerebral hemispheres, brainstem, spinal cord and cerebellum. To the best of our knowledge this is the first pathological description of congenital disease in calves associated with the consumption of S. maydis-infected corn; the findings resemble those reported for the naturally occurring and experimentally induced disease in lambs.

The effects of astaxanthin on liver histopathology and expression of superoxide dismutase in rat aflatoxicosis.

The metabolism of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) that destroys hepatocytes. Meanwhile, astaxanthin (AX) is known to have stronger antioxidative activity than other carotenoids. This study aimed to investigate hepatoprotective role of AX from AFB1-induced toxicity in rat by histopathological study and immunohistochemistry of Cu/Zn-SOD (SOD1) which acts as the first enzyme in antioxidative reaction against cell injury from ROS. Twenty Wistar rats were randomly divided into 4 groups. The control and AFB1 groups were gavaged by water for 7 days followed by a single DMSO and 1 mg/kg AFB1, respectively. The AXL+ AFB1 and AXH+ AFB1 groups were given of 5 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg AX for 7 days before 1 mg/kg AFB1 administration. The result showed significantly elevated liver weight per 100 g body weight in AFB1 group. The histopathological finding revealed vacuolar degeneration, necrosis, megalocytosis and binucleation of hepatocytes with bile duct hyperplasia in AFB1 group. The severities of pathological changes were sequentially reduced in AXL+AFB1 and AXH+AFB1 groups. Most rats in AXH+AFB1 group owned hypertrophic hepatocytes and atypical proliferation of cholangiocytes which are adaptive responses to severe hepatocyte damage. The SOD1 expression was also significantly higher in AXH+AFB1 group than solely treated AFB1 and AXL+AFB1 groups. In conclusion, AX alleviated AFB1-induced liver damage in rat by stimulating SOD1 expression and transdifferentiation of cholangiocytes in dose dependent manner.

Lactobacillus bulgaricus or Lactobacillus rhamnosus Suppresses NF-κB Signaling Pathway and Protects against AFB1-Induced Hepatitis: A Novel Potential Preventive Strategy for Aflatoxicosis?

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a mycotoxin found in food and feed, is immunotoxic to animals and poses significant threat to the food industry and animal production. The primary target of AFB1 is the liver. To overcome aflatoxin toxicity, probiotic-mediated detoxification has been proposed. In the present study, to investigate the protective effects and molecular mechanisms of Lactobacillus bulgaricus or Lactobacillus rhamnosus against liver inflammatory responses to AFB1, mice were administered with AFB1 (300 µg/kg) and/or Lactobacillus intragastrically for 8 weeks. AML12 cells were cultured and treated with AFB1, BAY 11-7082 (an NF-κB inhibitor), and different concentrations of L. bulgaricus or L. rhamnosus. The body weight, liver index, histopathological changes, biochemical indices, cytokines, cytotoxicity, and activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway were measured. AFB1 exposure caused changes in liver histopathology and biochemical functions, altered inflammatory response, and activated the NF-κB pathway. Supplementation of L. bulgaricus or L. rhamnosus significantly prevented AFB1-induced liver injury and alleviated histopathological changes and inflammatory response by decreasing NF-κB p65 expression. The results of in vitro experiments revealed that L.rhamnosus evidently protected against AFB1-induced inflammatory response and decreased NF-κB p65 expression when compared with L. bulgaricus. These findings indicated that AFB1 exposure can cause inflammatory response by inducing hepatic injury, and supplementation of L. bulgaricus or L. rhamnosus can produce significant protective effect against AFB1-induced liver damage and inflammatory response by regulating the activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway.

Brevetoxin exposure in sea turtles in south Texas (USA) during Karenia brevis red tide.

Five green (Chelonia mydas) and 11 Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) sea turtles found dead, or that died soon after stranding, on the southern Texas (USA) coast during 2 Karenia brevis blooms (October 2015, September-October 2016) were tested for exposure to brevetoxins (PbTx). Tissues (liver, kidney) and digesta (stomach and intestinal contents) were analyzed by ELISA. Three green turtles found alive during the 2015 event and 2 Kemp's ridley turtles found alive during the 2016 event exhibited signs of PbTx exposure, including lethargy and/or convulsions of the head and neck. PbTx were detected in 1 or more tissues or digesta in all 16 stranded turtles. Detected PbTx concentrations ranged from 2 to >2000 ng g-1. Necropsy examination and results of PbTx analysis indicated that 10 of the Kemp's ridleys and 2 of the green turtles died from brevetoxicosis via ingestion. This is the first documentation of sea turtle mortality in Texas attributed to brevetoxicosis.

Ameliorative Effects of Neutral Electrolyzed Water on Growth Performance, Biochemical Constituents, and Histopathological Changes in Turkey Poults during Aflatoxicosis.

Different in vitro and in silico approaches from our research group have demonstrated that neutral electrolyzed water (NEW) can be used to detoxify aflatoxins. The objective of this investigation was to evaluate the ability of NEW to detoxify B-aflatoxins (AFB1 and AFB2) in contaminated maize and to confirm detoxification in an in vivo experimental model. Batches of aflatoxin-contaminated maize were detoxified with NEW and mixed in commercial feed. A total of 240 6-day-old female large white Nicholas-700 turkey poults were randomly divided into four treatments of six replicates each (10 turkeys per replicate), which were fed ad libitum for two weeks with the following dietary treatments: (1) control feed containing aflatoxin-free maize (CONTROL); (2) feed containing the aflatoxin-contaminated maize (AF); (3) feed containing the aflatoxin-contaminated maize detoxified with NEW (AF + NEW); and (4) control feed containing aflatoxin-free maize treated with NEW (NEW). Compared to the control groups, turkey poults of the AF group significantly reduced body weight gain and increased feed conversion ratio and mortality rate; whereas turkey poults of the AF + NEW group did not present significant differences on productive parameters. In addition, alterations in serum biochemical constituents, enzyme activities, relative organ weight, gross morphological changes and histopathological studies were significantly mitigated by the aflatoxin-detoxification procedure. From these results, it is concluded that the treatment of aflatoxin-contaminated maize with NEW provided reasonable protection against the effects caused by aflatoxins in young turkey poults.

Changes in renal gene expression associated with induced ochratoxicosis in chickens: activation and deactivation of transcripts after varying durations of exposure.

Exposure to ochratoxin A (OTA) can lead to changes in global gene expression. This study investigated the individual expression of genes turned on and off in renal cells of chicks after different durations of exposure to dietary OTA. One hundred and eighty day-old male broiler chicks (Ross 308) were randomly assigned to a 3 × 3 factorial arrangement of treatments (3 levels of OTA: 0, 1 and 2 mg OTA/kg diet and 3 time periods: 7, 14 and 21 d). Birds were allocated to 36 pens (4 replicate pens of 5 birds each per treatment). For RNA-Sequencing analysis (RNA-Seq), kidney samples were collected weekly from 3 controls and 3 chicks fed 1 mg OTA/kg. Birds fed 2 mg OTA/kg diet were not chosen for analysis because their reduced feed intake could affect gene expression. The libraries were constructed by Illumina's TruSeq RNA protocol. NextGENe software was used for alignment and transcript quantification. Reads per kilobase of target per million tiled reads (RPKM) were used in the Binary test analysis (P < 0.05). The highest RPKM values were used as criterion for the selection of the genes described. A total of 27,638,976 50-bp RNA-Seq reads were produced over the 3 time periods. Transcripts (40,782) were assembled de novo and annotated by homology to either G. gallus or H. sapiens. The genes activated at 7 d were IL9 and TULP1, at 14 d was GHSR and at 21 d were GRK6 and GAPDH. Unlike all other genes, LOC396365 was activated during all time periods. In contrast, the genes deactivated at 7 d were SPAG4 and LOC100857131, at 14 d were LOC771469, NKX2-1, NKX2-8, FOXO1, MyHC and CLDN18 and at 21 d was XPC. The B-G gene was turned off at 7 and 21 d. All of these genes were involved in kidney toxicity. Therefore, the turning on and off responses of these genes may contribute to carcinogenic and tumorigenic effects of OTA in birds.

Acute photosensitisation and mortality in a herd of dairy cattle in Tasmania.

CASE HISTORY: A herd of Holstein, Jersey, or Holstein-Jersey cross lactating cattle of mixed ages presented with a sudden drop in milk yield in 94/678 cows on 3 October 2014 (Day 0). The herd was located in Gretna in the Derwent Valley (Tasmania, Australia) and had been grazing dryland pasture. CLINICAL FINDINGS: On Day 0 the cows variably showed recumbency, peracute photosensitisation, inflamed coronary bands, conjunctival erythema, periauricular oedema, distress indicated by kicking at the flank, bruxism, discomfort, weight shifting, vocalisation indicating pain and depression. Blood samples collected on Day 4 from five clinically affected cows showed high activities of aspartate aminotransferase, glutamate dehydrogenase and gamma-glutamyl transferase. Morbidity, based on the number of treated cases within 72 hours of clinical onset, was estimated at 165/678 cows (24.3%). Mortality over the first 30 days was 19/678 cows (2.8%). PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS: Necropsies of two cows on Day 4 showed marked distension of the gall bladder and extensive icterus. Necropsies of another two cows on Day 5 showed enlarged livers with severe damage and oedema of the distal abomasum. Severe ulcerative abomasal gastritis was present in both cows. Hepatic histopathology was consistent with chronic cholangiohepatitis. MYCOTOXICOLOGY: Fifty-five different mycotoxins were detected from a barley grass (Hordeum murinum) sample from the presumably contaminated pasture. Concentrations of B-trichothecenes, fumonisins, and zearalenone metabolites from this sample were remarkably high. The leaf smut, Jamesdicksonia dactylidis, that has not been previously reported in Tasmania, was identified from the sample of barley grass, but it is not known whether the smut can produce toxins. DIAGNOSIS: Probably an undescribed peracute mycotoxicosis associated with the ingestion of contaminated dryland pasture. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: A definitive diagnosis could not be reached in this case of acute photosensitisation and mortality in dairy cattle grazing possibly contaminated dryland pasture. The findings differed from both facial eczema and acute bovine liver disease, suggesting an undescribed mycotoxicosis.

Protective effects of Urtica dioica seed extract in aflatoxicosis: histopathological and biochemical findings.

The ameliorative potential and antioxidant capacity of an extract of Urtica dioica seeds (UDS) was investigated using histopathological changes in liver and kidney, measuring serum marker enzymes, antioxidant defence systems and lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde (MDA)) content in various tissues of broilers exposed to aflatoxin (AF). A total of 32 broilers were divided randomly into 4 groups: control, UDS extract-treated, AF-treated and AF+UDS extract-treated. Broilers in control and UDS extract-treated groups were fed on a diet without AF. The AF-treated group and AF+UDS extract-treated groups were treated with an estimated 1 mg total AF/kg feed. The AF+UDS extract groups received in addition 30 ml UDS extract/kg diet for 21 d. The AF-treated group had significantly decreased body weight gain when compared to the other groups. Biochemical analysis showed a small increase in the concentrations of serum aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, gamma glutamyl transpeptidase and lactate dehydrogenase in the AF-treated group compared to that of the control group, whereas concentrations of these enzymes were decreased in the AF+UDS group compared to that of the AF-treated group. Administration of supplementary UDS extract helped restore the AF-induced increase in MDA and reduced the antioxidant system towards normality, particularly in the liver, brain, kidney and heart. Hepatorenal protection by UDS extracts was further supported by the almost normal histology in AF+UDS extract-treated group as compared to the degenerative changes in the AF-treated broilers. It was concluded that UDS extract has a protective hepatorenal effect in broilers affected by aflatoxicosis, probably acting by promoting the antioxidative defence systems.

Protective effect of curcumin against experimentally induced aflatoxicosis on the renal cortex of adult male albino rats: a histological and immunohisochemical study.

BACKGROUND: Aflatoxin contamination of foods is a worldwide problem. Chronic aflatoxin exposure is associated with kidney damage. Curcumin is a herbal agent, used in medicine with a wide range of beneficial therapeutic effects. OBJECTIVE: to evaluate the effect of curcumin against experimentally induced aflatoxicosis on the renal cortex of adult male albino rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Forty adult male rats were included and they were divided equally into 4 groups (10 rats each): Group I (control group), group II (Curcumin group): The rats received curcumin (200 mg/kg b.w.) orally by gastric tube for 5 days/week, group III (Aflatoxin B1 group): The rats received aflatoxin B1 (250 µg/kg b.w./day) orally by gastric tube 5 days/week for 4 weeks, group IV (Aflatoxin B1 and Curcumin group): The rats received aflatoxin and curcumin orally by gastric tube 5 days/week for 4 weeks. Kidney specimens were prepared and sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin, Masson's trichrome, Periodic acid Schiff, immunohistochemical detection of desmin and Bcl2. RESULTS: The tubules of group III showed degenerative and necrotic changes with disruption of basal lamina. There was a significant decrease Bcl2 expression in the tubules, but the glomeruli showed an enlargement with dilation of their capillaries lumina in some areas, while the other areas showed glomerular atrophy with obliteration of their capillaries lumina. There was a significant increase in desmin expression in the glomerular cells. The interstitium showed hemorrhage and cellular infiltration. Group IV showed improvement of the histological and immunohistochemical changes described before. CONCLUSION: Aflatoxin B1 has deleterious effects of on the histological structure of the rat's renal cortex and curcumin minimized these effects as it has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antiapoptotic activities. We advise eating nutritious diets that contain sufficient amounts of curcumin and regulation must implement to avoid the presence of aflatoxins in high concentrations in human food.

Optic neuropathy in a herd of beef cattle in Alberta associated with consumption of moldy corn.

A group of beef cattle in eastern Alberta was investigated due to sudden onset of blindness after grazing on standing corn in mid-winter. Fumonisin-producing Fusarium spp. were isolated from the corn. Blindness was due to an optic nerve degeneration suspected to be secondary to fumonisin mycotoxin.

Neuropathie optique dans un cheptel de bovins de boucherie en Alberta associée à la consommation de maïs moisi. Un groupe de bovins de boucherie de l'est de l'Alberta a fait l'objet d'une enquête en raison de l'apparition soudaine de cécité après avoir brouté du maïs sur pied vers le milieu de l'hiver. Fusarium spp., qui produit la fumonisine, a été isolé dans le maïs. La cécité a été attribuable à la dégénération du nerf optique ayant pour cause suspectée la mycotoxine fumonisine.(Traduit par Isabelle Vallières).

Deoxynivalenol induces cytotoxicity and genotoxicity in animal primary cell culture.

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium graminearum, is widely found as a contaminant of food. DON is responsible for a wide range of toxic activities, including gastro-intestinal, lymphoid, bone-marrow and cardiotoxicity. But, the complete explorations of toxicity in terms of hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, cytotoxicity and genotoxicity as well have not been documented well. Again, the mechanisms through which DON damages the DNA and promotes cellular toxicity are not well established. Considering the above fact, this research article is focused on the effects of DON-induced toxicities on experimental animal model as well as its effects on cellular level via various toxicological investigations. DON treatment showed cytotoxicity and DNA damage. Further, flow cytometric analysis of hepatocytes showed cellular apoptosis, suggesting that DON-induced hepatotoxicity is, may be partly, mediated by apoptosis. Moreover, significant differences were found in each haematology and clinical chemistry value, either (p > 0.05). No abnormality of any organ was found during histopathological examination. Hence, it can be concluded that DON induces oxidative DNA damage and increases the formation of centromere positive micronuclei due to aneugenic activity.

Ameliorative effects of Bacillus subtilis ANSB01G on zearalenone toxicosis in pre-pubertal female gilts.

The purpose of this research was to investigate the toxicity of zearalenone (ZEA) on the growing performance, genital organs, serum hormones and histopathological changes of pre-pubertal female gilts, and to evaluate the efficacy of Bacillus subtilis ANSB01G in alleviating ZEA toxicosis in gilts. Eighteen pre-pubertal female gilts were randomly allocated to three treatments with one replicate per treatment. The gilts were fed following three diets for 24 days: the Control group was given a basic diet with normal corn; Treatment 1 (T1) was prepared by substituting corn naturally contaminated with ZEA for all normal corn in the basic diet (with a final concentrations of 238.57 µg kg(-1) of ZEA); and Treatment 2 (T2) was prepared by mixing the T1 diet with 2 kg T(-1) of fermented-dried culture of ANSB01G. The results showed that the presence of ZEA in diets significantly increased the vulva size and reproductive organ weight of the T1 gilts as compared with the Control group, and the addition of ANSB01G to diet naturally contaminated with ZEA obviously ameliorated these symptoms, as was observed in the T2 group. The presence of low doses of ZEA in the T1 diet had no significant effect on the level of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteotrophic hormone (LH) or serum oestradiol (E2) in the serum of gilts, but the prolactin (PRL) level in group T1 increased significantly. The gilts of the T1 group exhibited conspicuous cell enlargement and fatty degeneration of the corpus uteri, swelling, inflammation and lymphocyte infiltration of liver cells as compared with the Control group. The presence of ANSB01G can alleviate these hyperoestrogenic effects caused by ZEA, maintaining the body of gilt in a normal and healthy status. It is suggested that reproductive organs of gilts are seriously affected even if they are fed a low dose of ZEA in less time, and the addition of B. subtilis ANSB01G can effectively alleviate ZEA toxicosis in gilts.

Aflatoxicosis chemoprevention by probiotic Lactobacillius and lack of effect on the major histocompatibility complex.

Turkeys are extremely sensitive to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) which causes decreased growth, immunosuppression and liver necrosis. The purpose of this study was to determine whether probiotic Lactobacillus, shown to be protective in animal and clinical studies, would likewise confer protection in turkeys, which were treated for 11 days with either AFB1 (AFB; 1 ppm in diet), probiotic (PB; 1 × 10(11) CFU/ml; oral, daily), probiotic + AFB1 (PBAFB), or PBS control (CNTL). The AFB1 induced drop in body and liver weights were restored to normal in CNTL and PBAFB groups. Hepatotoxicity markers were not significantly reduced by probiotic treatment. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes BG1 and BG4, which are differentially expressed in liver and spleens, were not significantly affected by treatments. These data indicate modest protection, but the relatively high dietary AFB1 treatment, and the extreme sensitivity of this species may reveal limits of probiotic-based protection strategies.

The expression of type-1 and type-2 nitric oxide synthase in selected tissues of the gastrointestinal tract during mixed mycotoxicosis.

The aim of the study was to verify the hypothesis that intoxication with low doses of mycotoxins leads to changes in the mRNA expression levels of nitric oxide synthase-1 and nitric oxide synthase-2 genes in tissues of the gastrointestinal tract and the liver. The experiment involved four groups of immature gilts (with body weight of up to 25 kg) which were orally administered zearalenone in a daily dose of 40 µg/kg BW (group Z, n = 18), deoxynivalenol at 12 µg/kg BW (group D, n = 18), zearalenone and deoxynivalenol (group M, n = 18) or placebo (group C, n = 21) over a period of 42 days. The lowest mRNA expression levels of nitric oxide synthase-1 and nitric oxide synthase-2 genes were noted in the sixth week of the study, in particular in group M. Our results suggest that the presence of low mycotoxin doses in feed slows down the mRNA expression of both nitric oxide synthase isomers, which probably lowers the concentrations of nitric oxide, a common precursor of inflammation.

The effect of aflatoxin-B1 on red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) and assessment of dietary supplementation of NovaSil for the prevention of aflatoxicosis.

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a potent carcinogen that causes growth stunting, immunosuppression and liver cancer in multiple species. The recent trend of replacing fishmeal with plant-based proteins in fish feed has amplified the AFB1 exposure risk in farm-raised fish. NovaSil (NS), a calcium montmorillonite clay, has previously been shown to reduce AFB1 bioavailability safely and efficaciously in several mammalian species. This study was designed to: (1) evaluate AFB1 impact on cultured red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus, over the course of seven weeks; and (2) assess NS supplementation as a strategy to prevent aflatoxicosis. Fish were fed diets containing 0, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, or 5 ppm AFB1. Two additional treatment groups were fed either 5 ppm AFB1 + 1% NS or 5 ppm AFB1 + 2% NS. Aflatoxin B1 negatively impacted red drum weight gain, survival, feed efficiency, serum lysozyme concentration, hepatosomatic index (HSI), whole-body lipid levels, liver histopathological scoring, as well as trypsin inhibition. NovaSil inclusion in AFB1-contaminated diets improved weight gain, feed efficiency, serum lysozyme concentration, muscle somatic index, and intraperitoneal fat ratios compared to AFB1-treated fish. Although not significant, NS reduced AFB1-induced histopathological changes in the liver and decreased Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen (PCNA) staining. Importantly, NS supplementation improved overall health of AFB1-exposed red drum.

Acute and chronic disease associated with naturally occurring T-2 mycotoxicosis in sheep.

A flock of approximately 1,000 sheep were exposed intermittently to food contaminated with T-2 toxin (T-2), a potent type-A trichothecene mycotoxin produced primarily by Fusarium sporotrichioides and Fusarium poae. In the acute stage of the intoxication, affected sheep developed anorexia, decreased water consumption, ruminal atony, soft faeces and apathy. One hundred and ninety of the exposed sheep died. The main gross lesions observed in animals dying during the acute disease were rumenitis and ulcerative abomasitis, depletion of lymphocytes in lymphoid organs, necrosis of the exocrine pancreas, myocarditis and intense oedema of the skin and brain. Sheep developing the chronic stage of disease showed weight loss and reproductive inefficiency and the main pathological features observed in animals dying during this stage were gastrointestinal inflammation, myocardial fibrosis and necrotic and suppurative lesions in the oral cavity. Opportunistic infections (e.g. mycotic mastitis or parasitic pneumonia) were also identified in these animals. Increased serum concentrations of lactate dehydrogenase and creatine kinase were observed, most likely related to heart lesions. T-2 toxins were detected in all samples of the diet of these animals that were analyzed. The changes in the sheep reported here are similar to those described previously in experimental studies. Lesions observed in the present animals suggest an additional cardiotoxic effect of T-2 in sheep.

The low doses effect of experimental zearalenone (ZEN) intoxication on the presence of Ca2+ in selected ovarian cells from pre-pubertal bitches.

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of 42-day ZEN intoxication on the presence of Ca2+ in selected ovarian cells from beagle bitches, using the potassium pyroantimonate (PPA) method. Samples were collected from 30 clinically healthy, pre-pubertal, genetically homogeneous animals. The bitches were divided into three groups of 10 animals each: experimental group I--50 microg ZEN/kg BW (100% NOAEL) administered once daily per os; experimental group II--75 microg ZEN/kg BW (150% NOAEL) administered once dailyper os; control group--placebo containing no ZEN administered per os. An electron microscopic analysis revealed that cells died due to apoptosis, depending on the ZEN dose and the type of cells exposed to intoxication. Lower ZEN doses led to apoptosis-like changes in the cells. Cell death was a consequence of excess Ca2+ accumulation in the mitochondria, followed by cell dysfunction and a decrease in or the absence of mitochondrial metabolic activity in oocytes, follicle cells and interstitial cells in experimental bitches.